Metacognition
Using rehearsal, elaborative and organizational strategies like relational imagery and keyword mnemonics to construct mental models, and integrating these into long-term memory may not be effective until a student is able to monitor the process through techniques such as self-instruction and decide on the validity of the constructs. The "web model" must be expanded to include more than knowledge learning strategies. It must also include comprehension monitoring and affective strategies similar to th
ose included in Table 1, constructed after Weinstein and Mayer. The combination of both knowledge and monitoring strategies is known as metacognition.
"The term metacognition has been used to refer to both students' knowledge about their own cognitive processes and their ability to control these processes by organizing, monitoring and modifying them as a function of learning outcomes" (Weinstein and Mayer, p323). Brown and Palincsar (p1) describe metacognition as both knowledge about regulation of cognition. Seifert (1995, p5-4) defines the knowledge component in relation to strategies - knowing how, when and why to use a strategy; and tasks - kno
wing what a task demands and expects, and ways of completing it. Brown and Palincsar (p3) define the regulation component as "the ability to step back and consider one's own thought ... and to use the subsequent conceptualization to direct and redirect one's cognitive theories." In effect, this stepping back coordinates the cognitive processes by: monitoring the planning of activities proposed to complete a task; selecting and controlling attention; rescheduling one's strategies for learning; monitoring
comprehension for errors and lack of understanding (Seifert, 1995, p3-3); and, evaluating outcomes in terms of efficiency and effectiveness (Brown and Palincsar, p2). Seifert and Wheeler (p7) suggest that teachers need to model these self-regulatory and problem-solving strategies for students.
"Comparisons of good and poor [learners] comprehenders have consistently shown that poor comprehenders are deficient in the use of active learning strategies needed to monitor understanding" (Weinstein and Mayer, p323). "Poor problem solvers lack spontaneity and flexibility in both planning and monitoring" (Brown and Palincsar, p2). Seifert (1995, p5-3) suggests three reasons why these students may be cognitively inactive: they do not understand the necessary strategies (availability deficiency); o
r understand but do not know when the strategy should be applied (production deficiency); or understand but do not want to apply the strategy for reasons such as a personal belief of incompetency (motivation deficiency). Brown and Palincsar (p2) suggest that by observing the processes students use to correct errors a teacher may be able to identify the type of deficiency involved. For example, when a teacher corrects student work on exams it is easy to distinguish between test papers which contain answer
s unrelated to the strategies, test papers in which the student uses strategies but can not match the correct strategy to the appropriate problem, and test papers in which no effort is displayed.
Student deficiencies defined in terms of a metacognitive model should be solvable using a metacognitive approach to teaching. Such an approach may include increasing the student's awareness of task demands, teaching appropriate strategies, and teaching the student to monitor the application of these strategies (Palincsar and Brown, p67; Wittrock, p372). An ideal approach would consist of "... practice in the use of task-appropriate strategies, instruction concerning the significance of those activi
ties, and instruction concerning the monitoring and control of the strategy use" (Brown and Palincsar, p7). Palincsar and Brown (p71) suggest teaching techniques including specific strategy use, comparisons to known strategies, group discussions and guided practice may be used to increase student awareness about a particular strategy. A typical lesson may proceed from modelling a teacher's instructions, to overt rehearsal, to covert rehearsal and independent student use of the strategies.