As student populations grow, it is increasingly likely that learner needs will not be met by a static, production-oriented system of instruction (Butler, 1997). Some suggest that new technologies could provide the solution. Anyone attempting to use the World-Wide-Web (WWW) for instruction for the first time is faced with the challenge of choosing the forms of media to incorporate into the new multimedia learning environment. For example, what components of a course should go online? Should this online component include text, audio, video, dynamic script, or animation? Just because it can be done, it looks impressive or fits well, does not mean it should be done. As with traditional teaching, those who develop media or instructional aids for use on the Web should consider the various learning styles of the students and the appropriateness of the chosen medium. They should not get too caught up in the technology. High resolution imagery and animation may look quite impressive in a demonstration, but before you take the time and energy to integrate such features into a course, consider whether they truly are going to assist in conveying the intended message.

Spinning a Web:
Pedagogical Issues
The WWW should not be used simply as an information container for instructional content. However, online courseware should not be viewed as being in direct competition with other more appealing online resources. The foundation has to be a pre-determined structure involving presentation, practice, and guidance. According to Creed and Plank (1998), "good Web site design begins with good pedagogy". Duchastel and Turcotte (1996) argue that instructional design and teaching in an information-rich environment should be carried out differently than in traditional instructional environments. They predict that a new theory of applied learning will emerge to characterize the evolving learning process for this environment.

The purpose of creating an online learning environment is to enhance student learning. This environment has the potential to provide instructors with an opportunity for structuring learner interaction with the material in ways not possible previously (Creed and Plank, 1998), especially outside the conventional classroom environment. Designers must focus on the appropriate use for delivery of learning material by considering the content, learning objectives, motivation, and learning styles. The emphasis should be placed on giving learners the appropriate learning and thinking tools. Thus, with guidance, learners will find out what they need to know independently and will continue to use these skills after the course is over. Too often, when courseware designers gain rudimentary knowledge of HTML, they forget about principles of good pedagogy and design. As a result, course Web components tend not to meet their needs nor those of the learner (Creed and Plank, 1998).

Design
The Web component of a course should be designed with interesting and appropriate graphics and without distracting glitter (Boshier et al., 1997). "Students will be only temporarily impressed by flash and dazzle. Long-term impact depends on substance. Good content is ultimately more interesting than lots of spinning logos" (Creed and Plank, 1998). The designer should make decisions as to how the glitter and smart animation might detract from or enhance the objectives of the course. Consider the typical learner and create a standard in terms of minimal technical specifications (i.e., screen resolution, amount of memory, and other such hardware and software issues). The design goal is to encourage intellectual interaction with the content, not simply provide lots of 'click' areas. Students who are seeking information online want to find a particular Web site easily, navigate through and obtain the desired information, leave the site and return to it with ease if necessary.

Placing courseware online does not require using all the latest `bells and whistles'. While a course Web site should not consist of the text only, the point is to take advantage of the capabilities of the Web without overdoing it. Having course material online does not ensure instructional effectiveness. Designers should use only graphical elements, animation, audio, and video that significantly enrich the program. Neilson (1998) recommends avoiding gratuitous use of what he calls "bleeding edge technology". For example, highly complicated graphics and three- dimensional designs should only be used if the content dictates. Scrolling text, marquees, and constantly running animations should also be avoided because these become significant distractions.

Issues
Online courseware has to be interpreted by many browsers running on numerous types of computers with one of a variety of operating systems. Therefore, when considering flash, designers should realize that students learning online cannot be expected to use any one kind of hardware or software. When designing courseware for online use, the language of the Web has to be oriented towards structure, not layout. Designers cannot specifically dictate what a document will look like in terms of layout because there is too much variation across platforms (Maddux and Johnson, 1997). In addition, depending on computer literacy, the user can take control of the way a Web page looks on the screen by changing their own browser preferences. Furthermore, there are technical issues such as bandwidth limitations, modem speeds, and accessibility that may restrict instructional methodologies. For example, limited speed and bandwidth will obviously mean slower performance for sound, video, and intensive graphics.

Navigation
Web sites need to have frequent and consistent navigational tools for the learner. As Creed and Plank (1998) stated, these are the little road signs that help a learner get from here to there and back again.
Navigation options should be located at the top and/or bottom of every page depending on page length, and can be text-based, or use inline images that look like buttons. Inline graphics are easy to use and misuse, and are most effective when used sparingly. Designers should choose a handful of symbols and words as navigational aids and use them cautiously and consistently (Tilton et al., 1996). To make it easier to decode the symbols, include the 'redundant' text labels. Although a formal navigation bar is not essential, it is a more organized approach to Web site design than navigational links that are embedded directly in the text. Some might argue that either will suffice, but links embedded directly in the text can have adverse effects by interrupting the reader's flow. Therefore, it is better to provide linking options either before or after the main body of text to ensure that the flow of information is not interrupted and that the main point is conveyed.

Text
Reading from a computer screen tends to take about 25% longer than reading from paper (Nielsen, 1998). According to Nielsen (1998) and many usability studies, individuals tend to scan a Web page rather than read the entire page. Therefore, it is beneficial to keep the text concise. "Like the fold in a newspaper, the bottom edge of the screen will stop some people from reading further" (Levine, 1996). Scrolling decreases attention.

Users on slow links may get impatient waiting for documents which have dozens of screens of text to load and will move on. A solution is to divide the content into pieces that do fit on single screens. Be aware that when the user has to follow a link there is an interruption as the new page is loaded. If these interruptions come too frequently the flow of the text suffers and the reader is distracted. Thus, it is important that pages be neither too long nor too short. A good rule is to make a page at least as long as a screen, but limited to two screens.

Graphics
Although images have the power to add to the attractiveness and to the educational value of Web pages, they can be overdone. The real estate on a Web page is precious. Pages should not be cluttered with unnecessary clip art, icons, dividers, borders, and other decorations. Graphics should be used sparingly because each image adds to the time the browser requires to load the document, and depending on the amount of colour chosen for each image, the result could be a mixed quality. Images are better used for establishing common identity among Web pages, or when content dictates this type of enrichment. Images are also suitable for adding a touch of emphasis. Again, designers should try to conform to a standard.

Audio/Video/Animation
Audio, video, and animation are often used to convey a message or enhance a learning experience. The problems occur with its integration and associated technical matters. Movement attracts the eye and has the potential of captivating the viewer's full attention. The power of the moving image can be advantageous if incorporated appropriately. It is important to avoid arbitrary motion or motion that detracts from the content of the Web page. The content of the animation or video should support the intent or concept.

Effective integration means that the audio should contribute to the other media on a Web page by explaining a graphic or providing an example of something described in text. It should not be a way of restating the message which has already been conveyed by the text or a graphic.

Once the audio or video is in digital form and integrated into the content on the Web page, technical issues come into play. One option for distributing audio and video over the Internet is to have users download the sound clip and play it from their hard drives. The length, file size, and speed of the connection combine to determine the download time (that is, the time the user must wait before actually hearing the audio). For example, one second of CD-quality audio (44KHz, 16- bit stereo) can take about 49 seconds (using a 28.8Kbps modem). Reducing quality can reduce the download time but it is still a factor. The appeal of immediate gratification can easily be lost and the quality of the audio or video file may not be worthwhile.

Another alternative is to stream audio/video, or to play sound or video files in real time on request. In theory this might seem more effective, but quality appears to be dependent upon Internet traffic which can lead to serious buffering delays. The idea is to provide immediate feedback without first having to download the associated file to a hard drive; however, audio and video files must be compressed by a factor of 50 to 100 before being efficiently streamed via the Web. This compression will degrade the quality somewhat (Estrella, 1997). Furthermore, the end user does require a software "plug-in" or player to take advantage of the streaming audio or video file. Finally, obtaining and installing this specific software requires additional computer literacy on the part of the learner and designers cannot easily make such assumptions.

Dynamic Script
The use of dynamic script includes running simulations, performing demonstrations, modelling exercises and some form of learner assessment. For example, scripted programs can be delivered through a Web site providing 3-D modelling and/or graphic animations with an interactive feature. Online drill or practice testing can be used to reinforce material, even if the results are not used for student grading. Reading comprehension questions in short answer or multiple choice formats can provide students with an immediate assessment of their level of understanding. This is a tremendous advantage over assessment tools of the past. A student does not have to wait for an assignment to be graded because the marking is completed online. Instructors benefit as well. They avoid routine grading and can spend extra time interacting with students. In addition, they can be provided with student results using an online script and can readily identify content areas in which some students may be having difficulty. Then the instructor can provide remediation, assistance, or perhaps an online tutorial.

One disadvantage is that dynamic script can be rather impersonal from a learner's perspective. Secondly, a great deal of time and skill may be required to develop such scripts. For optimal benefit, dynamic script features have to be easy to use and distinct outcomes should match the instructional objectives.

Communication Tools
By its very nature, the online WWW environment should encourage interaction. Students can interact with the course content, or they can interact among themselves, with the course instructor, and with individuals who may not be involved in the course (Boshier et al., 1997). The Internet provides a variety of methods to facilitate this interaction through asynchronous tools such as point-to-point email, listserves, newsgroups, bulletin boards, and computer conferencing, or synchronous tools such as chats and real-time video/audio conferencing. However, sustained Web interaction can be mentally demanding. Designers should realize that creating convoluted constructivist and collaborative learning tasks may not always be the best way to assist learners. For example, some communication tools require a high level of skill and computer literacy on the part of the learner. As a result, technical difficulty or learning the technology could upstage learning the content.

Summary
Some benefits of developing and delivering courseware for the WWW include:

The Internet is not a solution for poor teaching. A course Web site should incorporate human- computer interface design principles and not simply transfer paper or previous non-graphical interfaces to the screen.

Course Web sites should provide more than just electronic page turn-ing for the learner (Starr, 1997). While the Web provides a means for higher level instruction, it can also be used quite successfully for the more traditional instructional strategies. The medium should not dictate the design. Designers should think beyond traditional classroom practices and focus on the needs of the learner.

Contact Persons:
Brian Kerr
Instructional Design Specialist
Allyson Hajek
Producer/Director (Multimedia)
Centre for Academic and Media Services
School of Continuing Education
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St. John's, Newfoundland
A1B 3X8
Telephone: (709) 737-7575
Facsimile: (709) 737-4635
email: bkerr@morgan.ucs.mun.ca
ahajek@mirror.det.mun.ca